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Nature, Sources, Resources, and Production of Thorium

Submitted: November 7th, 2016 Reviewed: March 3rd, 2017 Published: Baronial 23rd, 2017

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.68304

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Abstract

Thorium is a naturally occurring, slightly radioactive element. It is widely distributed in nature with an average concentration of 10.5 ppm Thursday in the upper globe's chaff. In general, thorium occurs in relatively small number in Th-enriched minerals: thorite, thorianite, monazite, bastnaesite, and thorogummite. Nonetheless, the main world resources of thorium are coupled with monazite and bastnaesite. Monazite-enriched placer deposits occurring mainly in Republic of india, Brazil, Australia, and the U.s.a. form the recently available resources of thorium. Other commercially interested concentrations of thorium are coupled with bastnaesite mined from carbonatite deposits, especially from Bayan Obo deposit in China. Currently, the worldwide thorium resources past major deposit types are estimated to total nigh 6.ii meg tons of Thursday. Bug associated with thorium'due south natural radioactivity are a significant deterrent to its commercial use. The monazite concentrates are recently produced merely in Republic of india, Brazil, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam, with a total amount of most 7000 tons. Consequently, experimental nuclear reactors based on thorium fuel cycle are operated recently just in India. In the long term, consumption of thorium could increase essentially if its use as a nuclear fuel becomes commercialized.

Keywords

  • thorium
  • geochemistry
  • mineralogy
  • monazite
  • thorium fuel cycle

1. Introduction

Thorium is a naturally occurring, slightly radioactive element. It is constitute in small-scale amounts in near rocks, where information technology is most three times abundant than uranium. Thorium is relatively enriched in acid igneous rocks, particularly in granites. The most common thorium mineral is monazite. In uranium ore deposits, thorium is concentrated in thorite and thorianite. In magmatic carbonate-enriched rocks (carbonatites), thorium is associated with rare globe elements (REE) in bastnaesite. However, the almost of import reserves of thorium occur in placer deposits, which contain monazite. Monazite is in placer deposits mined together with other heavy minerals, such as rutile, zircon, ilmenite, and cassiterite. The master monazite-producing countries are India, Brazil, Malaysia, and Thailand. Major finish uses of thorium are refractories, lamp mantles, and aerospace alloys. Relatively restricted is using thorium in energy product. Although research into thorium-fuelled nuclear reactors continues, there exist no industrial-scale nuclear reactors using thorium. However, India continued its plan for a evolution of its nuclear power programme based on the thorium-fuelled nuclear reactors.

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2. History

Thorium was identified as an element in the mineral thorite in 1828 by the Swedish chemist Berzelius. Newly discovered element was named for Thor, the Scandinavian God of thunder and lighting, because of its utilize in energy. In 1885, thorium came into commercial use when it was discovered that a fabric drapery impregnated with a thorium compounds would give a steady, bright white light when heated. This discovery led to the development of the Welsh mantle, which was adopted in gas lighting and later in kerosene lamps. Thorium derived from monazite occurring in the Brazilian beach sands was produced as early as 1885. In 1911, monazite from the Indian embankment sand deposits mastered world monazite markets.

During this time, the High german manufacturers organized a monopoly of the thorium nitrate industry. Globe War I restricted German supplies of thorium compounds and enabled Us production of thorium nitrate to expand. In the early on 1920s, electricity began to supersede gas and kerosene for general lighting purposes, and the need for thorium mantles declined. Up to the end of World State of war II, boss monazite producers were India and Brazil. Since 1945 some other countries have started with their monazite product (e.yard., Commonwealth of australia and Malaysia). During World War 2 started new using of thorium as a component in a high-temperature alloys.

After the state of war, monazite was candy largely for its nuclear fuel potential. The discovery in 1946 that 232Th could be transmuted into 233U increased the interest in thorium. Even so, the decision to develop nuclear reactors based on uranium fuels slowed development of thorium-fuelled reactors and reduced thorium need. During the 1950s, some became new producers of thorium, namely Canada and South Africa, where uranium ores from uranium-enriched quartz-pebble conglomerates incorporate also some thorium. At this fourth dimension distinctly increased interest in the rare earth elements (REE) and monazite was mined in the beginning place for its REE content. Some other thorium was also acquired from REE bearing bastnaesite, occurring in carbonate-enriched magmatic rocks (carbonatites). Much of thorium contained in residues is existence stockpiled by private manufacture [1].

New interest about using thorium every bit nuclear fuels started in 1960s together with ideas in the development of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR). Basic inquiry of thorium fuels cycles are being undertaken by Brazil, Germany, the USA, India, Italian republic, Australia, Canada, Red china, France, USSR, Romania, and another countries. Several experimental and paradigm nuclear power reactors were successfully operated from the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s using (Thursday, U)O2, (Th, U)C2, and LiF/BeF2/ThF4/UF4 fuel. The activity of the Nuclear Wheel Division of the IAEA in this expanse was supported mainly past organizing some technical committee meetings [2–5]. Yet, thorium fuels have not been introduced commercially because the estimated uranium resources turned out to be sufficient. On the other hand, using thorium in nuclear energy bicycle has some significant precedence: (i) the intrinsic proliferation resistance of thorium fuel cycle, (2) better thermophysical properties and chemical stability of ThO2, as compared to UOii, (iii) lesser long-lived minor actinides than the traditional uranium fuel wheel, (iv) superior plutonium incineration in (Th, Pu)Oii fuel as compared to (U, Pu)O2, and (five) attractive features of thorium related to accelerated-driven system and energy amplifier. However, there are several challenges in the course and back end of the thorium fuel cycles. Irradiated ThOii and spent ThO2-based fuels are difficult to dissolve in HNO3 because of the inertness of ThOtwo. The high gamma radiation associated with the short-lived daughter products of 232U, which is always associated with 233U, necessitates remote reprocessing and refabricating of fuel. The protactinium formed in thorium fuel bicycle as well causes some problems, which need to be suitably resolved. Consequently, recently the various experimental nuclear reactors based on thorium fuel cycle are operated merely in Bharat. Some other basic research on thorium fuel wheel continued in China, France, Japan, Kingdom of norway, Russia, and the Usa [6].

The other thorium's commercial uses included catalysts, high-temperature ceramics, and welding electrodes. Other no energy uses of thorium are in electron tubes, special employ lighting such equally airport track lighting, high-refractive glass, radiation detectors, calculator retentiveness components, photoconductive films, target material for X-ray tubes, and fuel cell elements. Its apply in most of these products is generally limited considering of concerns over its naturally occurring radioactivity. Consequently, no radioactive substitutes accept been developed for many applications of thorium. Beryllium, aluminium, and yttrium oxides tin be substituted for thorium oxide every bit a refractory. Yttrium compounds take replaced thorium compounds in incandescent lamp mantles. Magnesium alloys containing Zn, Al, REE, Y, and Zr can substitute for magnesium-thorium alloys in aerospace applications. Inquiry is being conducted to observe a replacement for thorium in lamp mantles. These substitutions for thorium in no energy uses are expected to increase considering of growing public business and governmental regulations on radioactive materials [7].

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3. Geochemistry of thorium and thorium minerals

Thorium is widely distributed in nature with an average concentration of 10.5 ppm Th in the upper earth'south chaff, while the middle crust has an average of 6.v ppm Thursday and the lower chaff an average of 1.ii ppm Th [vii]. Thorium is relatively depleted in mafic igneous rocks (basalts) where the concentration averages most 1 ppm Th, although alkali varieties enriched in Na and K relative to Ca range up to 5 ppm Th. Granitic rocks testify a distinct increase over mafic igneous rocks, averaging 20–thirty ppm Th. Thorium together with REE could exist accumulated during fractional crystallization of alkali igneous rocks. Under some circumstances by this fractionation, a split carbonate-enriched cook will grade, resulting in carbonatites. With carbonatites are associated some circuitous fluoro-carbonate minerals such as bastnaesite. During weathering, thorium remains in the refractory solid form and is mostly transported as distinct mineral grains (typically equally monazite). Sandstones comprise well-nigh 2 ppm Th, with embankment sands containing x ppm Th, and limestone averages about 2 ppm. Shale contains ten–fifteen ppm Th, minor amounts of thorium may adsorb clay particles during weathering. Twelve isotopes of thorium are known, with atomic masses from 223 to 234. Nonetheless, natural thorium is present equally nearly 100% 232Th isotope. The other important natural isotope of thorium 230Thursday is generally presented in uranium minerals.

In general, thorium occurs in relative small number of Th-enriched minerals: thorite (ThSiOfour), thorianite (ThO2), monazite [(Ce, La, Nd,Th,U)POiv], bastnaesite [(Ce, La)CO3F], and thorogummite [Th(SiOfour)1−x(OH)iv−ten]. Notwithstanding, the main world resources of thorium are coupled with monazite and bastnaesite. Monazite is a principal source of light REE. Monazite concentrates, which are mined from beach sands in Bharat, Brazil, the USA, Malaysia, Korea, and Sri Lanka, contain iii.1–14.32 wt.% ThO2 and 40.vii–65.0 wt.% REO (rare earths oxides). However, monazites from some granitic rocks could comprise up to 27 wt.% ThO2.

Other, particularly, potentially based resources of thorium are coupled with carbonate-enriched magmatic rocks (carbonatites), containing bastnaesite (up to 2.8 wt.% ThO2), parisite [CaREEii(CO3)3(F,OH)2] (up to four.0 wt.% ThOii), and synchysite [CaREE(CO3)2(F, OH)] (upwardly to 5.0 wt.% ThO2). Highly rare alkali-rich nephelinite syenites from the Lovozero pluton on the Kola peninsula (Russian federation) contain rare REE-enriched mineral loparite (Na,REE,Ca) (Ti, Nb) O2 with up to i.6 wt.% ThOtwo [eight]. Some higher concentrations of thorium have also important apatite ore deposit on the Kola Peninsula in the Russia. Apatite containing college concentrations of thorium occurs also in the alkalic magmatic rocks on the Vishnevyye Mountains of the Urals range in the Russia [1]. A large diversity of other minerals incorporate modest amounts of thorium (e.chiliad., allanite, xenotime, zircon, and uraninite).

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4. Ore deposits

Thorianite, thorite, and uranothorite are the only true thorium minerals, merely they are not recently recovered. Some resources of these minerals are coupled with quartz-pebble conglomerates in Canada (Elliot Lake region) and South Africa (Witwatersrand). World thorium resources in terms of the genetic types of ore deposits are displayed in Table ane [9].

Deposit type Metric tons of thorium
Placers 2,182,000
Carbonatites i,783,000
Vein-blazon ane,528,000
Alkaline igneous rocks 584,000
Others 135,000
Total 6,212,000

Tabular array 1.

World thorium resources in terms of the deposit types [9].

The main recently available resources of thorium are coupled with monazite-enriched placer deposits in alluvial or marine sediments occurring mainly in Australia, India, Brazil, Venezuela, the United states, and Arab republic of egypt. These deposits contain variable proportions of monazite, ilmenite, rutile, xenotime, zircon, and/or cassiterite. The chief minerals, which are mined on these placer deposits, are ilmenite, rutile, zircon, and cassiterite. Associated minerals, which are rarely of economic significance, can include garnet and kyanite. Monazite, when also extracted, represents just an accidental production.

Placer deposits are found where h2o waves have concentrated heavy mineral grains on a sea beaches. These deposits may occur in both modern and ancient shorelines. Many of the heavy mineral sand deposits are full-bodied by wave action in both parallel and transgressive dunes. Monazite placers are reported from Australia, Egypt, Bharat, Republic of liberia, Brazil, Burma, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and the The states.

The placer deposits in Commonwealth of australia are mined for their ilmenite, rutile, and zircon content. The monazite content in heavy mineral concentrates varied from 0.two to i.5 wt.%. Present-mean solar day shoreline deposits are evolved on the eastward coast in the SE Queensland. The most important placer sand deposits are coupled with the Tertiary fossil shoreline deposits in the Murray Basin, in the southwest Australia. Monazite grades in this deposits are around 1–1.5 wt.%.

Although monazite occurs associated with ilmenite and other heavy minerals in beach sands, skirting the entire Peninsular India, its economic concentration is confined to only some areas with suitable physiographic conditions. The west declension placers are essentially beach or bulwark deposits with evolution of dunes evolved on dry months. On the other hand, the due east coasts deposits consist of extensive dunes fringing the coasts. The beach sands of Chavara bar (Kerala) on the Westward coast comprise 73 vol.% heavy minerals, 60–70 vol.% ilmenite, 4–7 vol.% garnet, 5–eight vol.% zircon, and 0.5–1.0 vol.% monazite. The e coast beach placers and dunes are low grade with 8–20 vol.% of heavy minerals. The most important placer deposit on the Eastward declension is the Chatrapur deposit (Orissa) with about 20 vol.% heavy minerals and 0.v vol.% monazite. In the Malaysian deposits, monazite is associated with columbite, xenotime, and cassiterite. The cassiterite placers at Trengganu contain as much as 58 vol.% monazite. In Sri Lanka, the largest placer deposit most Pulmoddai contains 3 meg tons of sand with 0.4 vol.% monazite, 18 vol.% rutile, and 62 vol.% ilmenite [10].

In Brazil, monazite occurs associated with ilmenite and zircon in placer deposits evolved along the eastern and south-eastern Atlantic coast. In Burma, placer deposits occur in the southern Shan states. Weathering of quartz veins and pegmatite dykes injected into the granites derives considerable quantities of cassiterite and wolframite occurring in the placers.

In the USA, alluvial deposits of monazite are known to occur in the intermountain valleys of Idaho, the Carolina Piedmont of North and Southward Carolina, and the beach deposits of north-eastern Florida to south-eastern Georgia. The 3 monazite placer districts, namely the North and S Carolina stream deposits, Idaho stream deposits, and Florida-Georgia beaches, are the largest volume known alluvial thorium deposits in the Us. The modern and raised Pleistocene and Pliocene embankment deposits of n-eastern Florida and s-eastern Georgia host depression-grade but persistent concentrations of thorium. Heavy minerals constitute a small part of the embankment sands. The almost arable heavy mineral in this embankment deposits is ilmenite, in many places forming more than than 50 vol.% of the heavy-mineral fraction. Monazite forms a minor function of the heavy-mineral fraction, usually less than 1 vol.%. The embankment placer deposits of this region contain total reserves of about xiv,700 tons of ThOii, which occur in 330,000 tons of monazite. These placer deposits were mined primarily for ilmenite and rutile. Mining ceased in this area in late 1978 since increasing environmental regulations made mining operations more plush [11].

The ore bodies constituting quartz-pebble conglomerates are represented in particular past the Blind River-Elliot Lake deposits in Ontario, Canada and the Witwatersrand deposits in South Africa. These ore bodies occur mainly in pyrite-begetting oligomictic conglomerates. In the Blind River-Elliot Lake deposits, thorium together with uranium occurs mainly in a brannerite-uraninite-monazite mineral assemblage. Principal ore minerals are uraninite, brannerite, and monazite, with small coffinite, uranothorite, xenotime, and gummite. Uraninite is partly enriched in thorium with boilerplate content of 6.5 wt.% ThO2. The Witwatersrand reefs are not only rich in gold just as well stand for meaning uranium deposit. The principal uranium minerals are uraninite and lesser uranothorite, brannerite, and coffinite. Uraninite from this eolith is enriched in thorium (boilerplate 3.9 wt.% Thursday) [12].

Carbonatites, which recently represented the most of import source of REE, are as well considered equally potential source of thorium. Carbonatites are igneous rocks containing >50% of master carbonate minerals. The nearly carbonatites are really polygenetic and show evidence of hydrothermal and metasomatic reworking. These rocks more often than not contain <l ppm Th; nevertheless, some incorporate higher concentrations. The majority of carbonatites occur in association with broadly coeval ultramafic and alkaline silicate rocks.

From the mid-1960s to 1985, the carbonatite-hosted Mountain Pass deposit in the USA was the earth'due south main source of REE, producing over 20 kt REO at its zenith. Recently, almost all (~97%, or 120–130 kt REO in 2006–2010) of the world'due south REE supply comes from China, with 40–50% of this production contributed by the behemothic Fe–REE–Nb deposit at Bayan Obo [8].

Carbonatite-related deposits can be subdivided into deposits where magmatic and/or hydrothermal processes are important and those where secondary processes such equally supergene enrichment and laterization predominate. The most important primary carbonatite-related deposit is the Bayan Obo deposit in Inner Mongolia, China, which represents lxx% of the globe'south REE resources. The well-nigh abundant REE minerals at Bayan Obo are monazite and bastnaesite. Carbonatites with appreciable REE and Th mineralization have been reported also at Khibiny (Kola, Russian federation), Ozerny and Arshan (Siberia, Russia), Fen (Kingdom of norway), Sokli (Republic of finland), Mount Weld, Cummins Range, Mud Tank (Australia), Palabora (South Africa), Khanneshin (Afghanistan), Amba Dogar (India), Barra practise Itapirapuã (Brazil), Tundulu and Kangankunde (Malawi), and Wigu Hill (Tanzania) among many others [13].

Highly potential sources of REE and Thursday correspond intrusions of alkaline metal and peralkaline igneous rocks. Some well-known examples of these rock series being the Ilímaussaq intrusion in southern Greenland, Lovozero and Khibiny alkaline metal plutons on the Kola Peninsula (Russia), the Red Wine-Letitia alkaline province in Canada, alkaline laccolith at Poços de Caldas (Brazil), and alkali metal syenite body at Pilanesberg (Due south Africa) [14, xv]. All these magmatic complexes are zoned or layered, enriched with Na and Chiliad, and contain a variety of relatively rare minerals including thorite, monazite, loparite, zircon, and apatite. Thorium is nowadays in thorite, monazite, zircon, loparite, and another accompaniment minerals of REE. Local thorium contents in these rock complexes may range up to 1500 ppm Th, but overall they rarely contain in excess of 50 ppm Th [16].

On the Ilímaussaq circuitous is bounded highly interested REE-Y-U-Th mneralization at Kvanefjeld (Kuannersuit) coupled on agpaitic nepheline syenites. Recently performed exploration is concentrated on potential recovery of REO, Y, together with product of U and Zn every bit valuable past-products. The Lovozero complex in the Kola Peninsula is represented by layered intrusion of varied varieties of nepheline syenite with loparite as main economical interested mineral. Several loparite-rich units were mined since 1951 as the major source of LREE, Nb, and Ta for Soviet industry [13].

Some other potential sources of thorium represent Th-bearing granites and pegmatites, which are known in many parts of world. The thorium-enriched pegmatites most unremarkably occur in near granitic or syenitic bodies or in loftier-grade metamorphic rock series virtually their contacts with granitic stocks or batholiths. The principal thorium-bearing minerals in these deposits are uraninite, thorite, brannerite, uranothorite, monazite, and another REE-, Th-, and U-bearing accessory minerals.

Well-nigh of the Th-enriched granites and pegmatites are not of commercial importance at nowadays just provide a big reserve of thorium and uranium for the future. Thorium-bearing granitic rocks and pegmatite-bearing rock complexes occur in the Bancroft area of Ontario (Canada), Rössing (Namibia), Crockers Well, Greenbushes, Radium Hill (Australia). The Thursday-bearing minerals are represented by allanite, betafite, brannerite, davidite, monazite, thorite, and some others rare REE-, Th-, and U-bearing minerals. The ore zones at the Greenbushes incorporate low levels of thorium with average grades in range iii–25 ppm Th [17]. The uranium deposits in the Bancroft expanse coupled with anatectic pegmatites produced a total of 5700 tons U between 1956 and 1982. The main ore minerals were uraninite, with upward to 10 wt.% ThOtwo, and uranothorite.

Uranium mineralization associated with leucogranite dykes on the Rössing eolith in Namibia was derived by the partial melting of U-rich sedimentary rocks. Uraniferous leucogranite bodies are located in high-grade metasediments of the Damara Pan-African belt. Within mineralized leucogranites, the distribution of uranium tin be extremely variable. Main uranium mineral is Thursday-bearing uraninite with 3.three–8.0 wt.% ThO2. The Rössing uranium deposit is mined from 1976 and total production by the terminate of 2007 was slightly over ninety,000 tones U [18].

Relatively rare thorium-bearing vein deposits are distributed throughout the earth. They are localized in shear zones, faults, breccias zones in metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks and are ofttimes associated with alkalic rocks complexes and carbonatites. The chief Th-bearing minerals in vein deposits are thorite, thorogummite, and monazite, which are associated with some REE-minerals (allanite, bastnaesite, and xenotime). Examples of these ore deposits include the Lemhi Pass in the United states of america, Steenkampskraal and Vanrhynsdorp in South Africa, Eskisehir deposit in Turkey, and Nolans Diameter in Commonwealth of australia [16, nineteen].

The Lemhi Pass district on the Montana-Idaho border in the USA contains numerous thorium-rich veins in the central Beaverhead Mountains. This commune is idea to stand for the largest concentration of thorium resources in the United states. The district contains total reserves of 64,000 tons of ThO2 [20]. Most of mineralized veins are quartz-hematite-thorite veins, which fill fractures, shears, and brecciated zones in quartzitic rocks. Rare-earth- and Th-bearing allanite and monazite are locally abundant. The thorite veins of the Lemhi Pass district are approximately every bit enriched in thorium and REE. The total REE-oxide contents range from 0.07 to ii.twenty wt.%, with an average value of 0.43 wt.%. The boilerplate concentrations of Th are 0.43 wt.%. [11].

At Steenkampskraal (Due south Africa) from the 1950s to 1963 about fifty,000 tons of monazite concentrates were extracted, which contained between 3.3 and 7.half-dozen wt.% Th before performance of the mine was halted. New economic assessment of this deposit was completed in 2012 and currently were established resource of 86,900 wt.% of REO [nine].

The Nolans Bore deposit in the Northern Territory (Australia) is coupled with mineralized shear zones evolved in variably deformed and altered granitic gneiss, pegmatite, and minor calcsilicate rocks. Massive fluorapatite dykes enriched in REE and Th form the mineralization. The thorium content of Nolans Bore fluorapatite generally ranges from 0.07 to 0.59 wt.% Thursday (average 0.23 wt.% Th) [21].

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5. Resources

The by-product nature of the occurrence of thorium and a lack of economical involvement has meant that thorium resource have seldom, if over, been accurately defined. Information on thorium resources was published in a joint study past the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)—"Red Books" between 1965 and 1981, typically using the same terminology as for uranium resources at that time (e.g., reasonably assured resources and estimated additional resource I and II, the latter two categories which are recently termed inferred and prognosticated resources, respectively). No further information was published until 2003 when a global estimate of thorium resources of 4.v meg Th was presented in the 2003 Reed Book. A more comprehensive study was presented in the 2007 Blood-red Volume where resource estimates were given by deposit type and past countries and this was updated in the 2009 edition. Currently, the worldwide thorium resource past major eolith types are estimated to full most 6.two meg tons Thursday, including undiscovered resources (Table 1). In 2011 and 2013, the IAEA conducted technical meetings on thorium resources. Based on the inputs given in the meetings and details available in other open sources, identified uranium resources, regardless of resource category or cost category, have been updated for 16 countries and published in the almost recent Red Book (Tabular array ii) [ix]. However, these identified resources (reasonably bodacious and inferred resource) may not have the aforementioned meaning in terms of nomenclature as identified U resources.

Country Metric tons of thorium
Bharat 846,000
Brazil 632,000
Australia 595,000
The USA 595,000
Arab republic of egypt 380,000
Turkey 374,000
Venezuela 300,000
Canada 172,000
Russia 155,000
South Africa 148,000
China 100,000
Kingdom of norway 87,000
Greenland 86,000
Republic of finland 60,000
Sweden l,000
Kazakhstan 50,000
Other countries 1,725,000
World total 6,355,000

Table 2.

Identified resources of thorium [ix].

The main world resources of thorium are associated with monazite placer deposits in India, Brazil, Australia, the USA, Egypt, and Venezuela. The second most important thorium resources could exist mined as by-production of REO from carbonatites (Communist china, Greenland, Kingdom of norway, Finland, and Sweden). Some other thorium resources are coupled with various uranium deposits in Canada, the USA, South Africa, and Kazakhstan. Thorium in Republic of kazakhstan could exist recovered every bit a by-product together with REO bounded on complex U-REE-Th ores. These ores are recently processed in the SARECO found by Stepnogorsk [nine].

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6. Production

The monazite concentrates arte recently produced only in five countries (Table 3) [22]. However, substantial but unquantifiable quantities of thorium produced China during the processing of domestic and imported mineral concentrates for production of rare-earth compounds. Bug associated with thorium's natural radioactivity are a significant deterrent to its commercial use. Limited global demand for thorium continued to create an crowd of thorium compounds and residues. Excess thorium that was not designated for commercial use was either disposed of as a low-level nuclear waste or stored. Although research into thorium-fuelled nuclear reactor continues, in that location are recently no industrial-calibration nuclear reactors using thorium.

Country Metric tons
Republic of india 5500
Brazil 600
Malaysia 500
Thailand 210
Vietnam 180
Total 6990

Tabular array 3.

World product of monazite concentrates [22].

Recently, worldwide simply minor amounts of ThO2 are typically used annually. Primary uses include chemical catalysts, lighting, welding electrodes, and heat-resistant ceramics, in descending order of use.

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vii. Conclusion

Extraction of thorium every bit a by-product of REE recovery from monazite and other REE- and Thursday-begetting minerals (bastnäesite) seems to exist the nigh feasible source of thorium production recently. Processing of monazite to recover REE and thorium has been done in the past in many countries. Main monazite concentrate production is currently taking place in India, Brazil, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Substantial only unquantifiable quantities of thorium produced China during the processing of domestic and imported mineral concentrates for production of rare-globe compounds. However, issues associated with thorium'due south natural radioactivity are a meaning deterrent to its commercial use. Consequently, recently the various experimental nuclear reactors based on thorium fuel cycle are operated only in India. In the long term, consumption of thorium could increase substantially if its use as a nuclear fuel becomes commercialized.

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Acknowledgments

This work was carried out thanks to support of the long-term conceptual research organization RVO: 67985891.

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Submitted: November seventh, 2016 Reviewed: March tertiary, 2017 Published: August 23rd, 2017

© 2017 The Author(due south). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Artistic Eatables Attribution three.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original piece of work is properly cited.

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